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CONTENTS A1-2, B1-2, C1+

ARTICLES
A FEW, LITTLE
ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES
CAN, MUST, MAY, COULD, SHOULD, WOULD
CLAUSES
EACH, EVERY, ALL
EITHER,NEITHER
FUTURE
HAVE TO, BE ABLE TO
INTENSIFIERS
MODALS
NEGATION
PRONOUNS
PAST TENSES
PRESENT TENSES
SIMPLE PAST
QUANTITIES
WORD ORDER
ZERO ARTICLE
ZERO CONDITIONAL

A1/2

ARTICLES, DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE

The indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ refer to any member of a group - not a specific object.

I need a new battery for my flashlight.
I want an orange.

The definite article ‘the’ is used for a specific noun and for superlatives.

The old battery is dead.
The weather is freezing.
He is the fastest skier.

NO ARTICLE

No article is used with street names, cities, states, countries, mountains, lakes, islands, sports, languages or nationalities:

134th Street, in New York, in Georgia, in China, on Mount Everest, on Lake Michigan, on Long Island, play football, speak French, be Italian.

However, mountain ranges, a group of lakes or countries with state(s), kingdom or republic need an article:

the Alps, the Great Lakes, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland.

Articles in English are invariable. They are always the same whatever the gender or number of the noun they refer to, e.g. the boy, the woman, the children

DEFINITE ARTICLE

‘The’ is used:

1. to refer to something which has already been mentioned.

There was an important meeting to make a decision about company strategy.
The meeting lasted two days and the decision taken will effect everyone in the company.

2. when both the speaker and listener know what is being talked about, even if it has not been mentioned before.

‘Where’s the bathroom?’ ‘It’s on the first floor.’

3. in sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular person or object:

The man who wrote this book is famous. ‘Which hotel did you choose?’ ‘The best one, of couse. My office is the one at the end of the corridor.’

4. to refer to objects we regard as unique:

the sun, the moon, the world

5. before superlatives and ordinal numbers:

the highest building, the first page, the last chapter. the best hotel

6. with adjectives, to refer to a whole group of people:

the Japanese, the old, the rich

7. with names of geographical areas and oceans:

the Caribbean, the Sahara, the Atlantic

8. with decades, or groups of years:

she grew up in the seventies

A FEW, LITTLE

‘a few’ + plural countable words

I have a few apples.
I’ve got a few dollars.

‘a little’ + singular uncountable words

I’ve got a little money.
There is a little water left.

ADVERBS

Adjective Adverbs = adjective + ‘-ly’

bad - badly
slow - slowly

Words ending with a consonant +’-ly’

calm - calmly
real - really

Words ending with a vowel +’-ly’

pale - palely
late - lately

Words ending in ‘-ic’ +’-ally’

tragic - tragically

Exceptions:

true - truly
public - publicly
full - fully

IRREGULAR ADVERBS)
Adjective Adverb

hard - hard
fast - fast
late - late
early - early
daily - daily
good - well

ADVERBS OF TIME

‘yet’ = action has not happened

Tom hasn’t started his homework yet.

‘still’ = action is in progress

John is still smoking on the balcony.

‘already’ = action is finished

John has already finished his homework.

‘anymore,’ ‘no longer’ = action happened in the past but has ended

John no longer does homework.
John doesn’t do homework anymore.

Adverbs of time answer the question ‘When …?’

When do you go to work?

I go to work after 9.
I go to work late.

When does he go to bed?

He goes to bed early.
He goes to bed late.

PRESENT PERFECT w. ADVERBS OF TIME

‘Have’/‘has’ + ‘past participle’ is often used with the words ‘already,’ ‘always,’ ‘ever,’ ‘just,’ ‘never,’ ‘still,’ ‘before’ or ‘yet.’

I have already seen the movie.
She has never stolen anything.

ADVERBS OF TIME: SINCE, FOR, IN

‘since’ + point in time (present perfect)

I’ve been sick since Christmas.
(from Christmas until now.)

‘for’ + period of time (present perfect)

I’ve been sick for 8 days.

‘in’ + point in time (simple past)

I bought my car in 1954.

ADVERBS, POSITION OF

Depending on the type, adverbs can come at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

BEGINNING
Connecting adverbs (e.g. however, furthermore, as a result, on the contrary, consequently, etc.) or adverbs of time and place can assume the beginning position in a sentence.

MIDDLE
Adverbs of frequency assume the middle position.
Adverbs of manner, time and place can assume the end position. They can also be used in the same sentence. If this is the case then they always follow the pattern: manner + place + time.

Last month, James went happily to work each day. But one day, because he didn’t check the figures in his report carefully enough, he was reprimanded by his boss in front of all his coworkers. It was terribly embarrassing. However, he learned his lesson and as a result, he will be more careful not to make such huge mistakes in the future.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

Adverbs of degree are used before adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs and provide information about the extent of something. The words ‘extremely,’ ‘really,’ ‘slightly,’ ‘totally’ and ‘almost’ are all adverbs of degree.

They’re excited.
They’re extremely excited.

ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB

Adjectives describe a person, place or thing.

She is beautiful.
The tall boy.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

She ran slowly.
She is really beautiful.
She runs really fast.

CAN, MUST

‘can’ = permission, ability and possibility

Can I open the window, please?
I can speak French.
I have some time. I can help you.

‘must’ = necessity, it is necessary

I’m sick. I must go to the doctor.

CAN, MAY

‘can’ = able to ‘can’t’ = not able to Can you …? = Are you able to …?

I can swim. John can’t drive. Can you help me?

‘May I …?’ (in questions) = Can I have permission to …?

May I open the window?

‘may’ (in answers) = You have permission to …

Yes, you may open the window.

‘may not’ = You do not have permission to …

No, you may not open the window!

COULD, WOULD, WOULD LIKE

‘could’ = polite form of ‘can’

Can I have another cup of tea, please?
Could I have another cup of tea, please?

‘would like’ = polite form of ‘want’

Would you like another cup of tea?

COULD, SHOULD

‘Can’ and ‘could’ are used in questions.

Can you open the window?

More polite: Could you open the window?

‘Could’ is also the past tense of ‘can.’

I can speak French now.
I could speak French when I was young, but now I can’t.

‘Could’ also means that something is possible.

I have some time. I could help you.

‘Should’ is used to ask and give advice.

Should I buy a new hat?
Yes! You should.
You should also buy a new coat.

EACH, EVERY, ALL

‘each’ = every one separately, one by one
’each’ + singular noun
She has two children. I’ve met each of them.

‘every’ = all the members of a group
’every’ + singular noun
Every family in America has a TV.

‘all’ + plural noun
All the boys have a bike.

FUTURE WITH GOING TO or WILL

The ‘will’ future is used when one has no influence over future events:

John will be 40 next week.

The ‘will’ future is used when one thinks, hopes or promises something:

I think he’ll come.
I hope you’ll stay.
I promise I’ll be there.

The ‘will’ future is used when one makes a spontaneous decision:

I’ll get the book for you.
I’ll call him now.

The ‘going to’ future expresses ‘planned’ events:

I’m going to meet my father this afternoon. He’s going to help me buy a new car.

HAVE TO, BE ABLE TO

‘Have to’ = ‘must’

I have to go now.
The car is broken. He has to walk.

‘Be able to’ = ‘can’

He is able to swim.
I am able to speak French.
She isn’t able to walk yet.
We are able to drive.
We aren’t able to ski.

OBJECT PRONOUNS

Pronouns
Subject	- Object
I	- me
you	- you
he/she/it	- him/ her/ it
we	- us
you	- you
they	- them

PAST TENSE

SIMPLE PAST
walk + ‘-ed’ walked
talk talked
love + ‘-d’ loved
live lived

‘DID’ IN QUESTIONS

Present Past
Do I like…? - Did I like…?
Do you like…? - Did you like…?
Does he/she like…? - Did he/she like…?
Do we like…? - Did we like…?
Do you like…? - Did you like…?
Do they like…? vDid they like…?

NEGATIVE PAST TENSE
Positive Negative + 'not’
I did like- I didn’t like
you did like- you didn’t like
he/she/it did like - he/she/it didn’t like
you did like - you didn’t like
we did like - we didn’t like
they did like - they didn’t like

PAST TENSE 'to BE’
Present Past
I am - I was
you are - you were
he/she/it is - he/she/it was
we are - we were
you are - you were
they are - they were

WAS/WERE
Positive Negative Question
I was I wasn’t - Was I …?
you were - you weren’t Were you …?

he/she/it was he/she/it wasn’t Was he/she/it …?
we were - we weren’t Were we …?
you were - you weren’t Were you …?
they were - they weren’t Were they …?

PRESENT TENSES

For things you do regularly - they are not temporary projects or activities, but things you do every day.

Example: “I read my emails every day. I have coffee every day.”

… tells things you do every day.

… tells things you do never does.

… tells things you do sometimes does.

… tells things you do often does.

… tells things you do rarely does.

… tells things you do always does.

SIMPLE PAST - IRREGULAR VERBS

sleep slept
go went
speak spoke
have had
steal stole
keep kept
swim swam
leave left
take took
lose lost
tell told
make made
think thought
meet met
write wrote

SIMPLE PAST VERBS -Y to -IED

vowel +’-d’

like - liked

consonant +’-ed’

kick - kicked

vowel + ‘-y’ +’-ed’

stay - stayed

consonant + ‘-y’ +’-ied’

fry - fried

vowel + consonant + consonant + ‘-ed’

trip - tripped

NEGATIVE MODAL VERBS

Positive - Negative Short form
can - cannot -can’t
could - could not - couldn’t
shall - shall not - shan’t
should - should not - shouldn’t
will - will not - won’t
would - would not - wouldn’t
must - must not - mustn’t
have to - don’t have to

QUANTITIES (MUCH, LOTS OF, A LOT OF, FEW, LITTLE, LESS, FEWER)

MUCH, A LOT, LOTS OF
’much,’ ‘a lot,’ ‘lots of’ + uncountable

Hurry! We don’t have much time.
Don’t worry, we have a lot of time.
Don’t worry, we have lots of time.

‘many,’ ‘a lot,’ ‘lots’ + countable

don’t read many books.
She reads a lot of books.
This store sells lots of books.

A LITTLE, SOME
’a little,’ ‘some’ + uncountable

I have a little money.
I have some money.

A FEW, SOME
’a few,’ ‘some’ + countable

I have a few children.
I have some children.

FEW, LITTLE, LESS, FEWER
Few = not many
Little = not much
Few + countable nouns
Little + uncountable

Few actors came.

Little interest was shown.

A few = some
A little = some
A few + countable nouns
A little + uncountable
A few actors came.
A little interest was shown

LESS
’Less’ is the comparative form of ‘little.’

Little assistance was given this year.
Less was given last year.

FEW, FEWER
’Fewer’ is the comparative form of ‘few.’

Few people received assistance this year.
Fewer people received assistance last year.

PRESENT PERFECT

‘have’/‘has’ + past participle

have + walked
has + worked

Simple past >> Present perfect
I gave >> I have given
you gave >> you have given
he/she/it gave >> he/she/it has given
we gave >> we have given
you gave >> you have given
they gave >> they have given

SHORT FORMS OF PRESENT PERFECT)

He’s at home at the moment. (is)
She’s gone home. (has)
Sue’s book is on the table. (possessive)
I’ve seen the film. (have)

NEGATIVE PRESENT PERFECT

Positive Short form

I have seen him. I’ve seen him.
He has been here. He’s been here.

Negative Short form

I have not seen him. I haven’t seen him.
He has not been here. He hasn’t been here.

PRESENT PERFECT QUESTIONS

‘Have’/‘has’ + subject + past participle
Have I been…?
Have you seen…?
Has he/she/it gone…?
Have we eaten…?
Have you drunk…?
Have they slept…?

PRESENT PERFECT AND SIMPLE PAST

Simple past (action is over)

I flew to London last week.
We went shopping yesterday.
He wrote the exam two months ago.

Present perfect (leading up to now)

I have driven to Alaska before.
He has already eaten breakfast.
I have never been to New York.

Simple past = started and ended in the past

I went to work yesterday.

Present perfect = from a point in the past up until now.

I have lived in Korea since 2005. (I’m still living there.)

WORD ORDER

The basic form in English is subject verb object + adverb (manner) + adverb (place) + adverb (time)

Subject Verb Object (SVO)

The dog bit the man.
Peter kissed Jane.
Germany was beaten by Italy.

If you change this order the meaning can change:

The cat ate the mouse.
The mouse ate the cat.

place comes before time:

I am meeting John at the cinema at 6pm tonight.
We visited her friends in New York in 1998.

frequency comes before the main verb:

I often write letters in German.
I never eat cornflakes.
I don’t usually watch TV.
I have never been to Spain.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVES/ SUPERLATIVES

Adjectives with one syllable add the ending -er to the end of the adjective.

tall, taller

Adjectives that end in y and have two syllables drop the y and add -ier.

pretty, prettier

Adjectives with two syllables and don’t end in y add the word ‘more’ before the adjective.

purple, more purple

Words with three syllables use the word ‘more’ before the adjective.

beautiful, more beautiful.

ADJECTIVE SUPERLATIVES:

1 syllable words: add ‘est’ to the word.

1 syllable words ending with an ‘e’: only add ‘st’

2 syllable words ending with a ‘y’: change the ‘y’ to an ‘i’ and add ‘est.’

2 and 3 syllable words: use ‘most’ or ‘least.’

SIMPLE PAST STARTER

VOCABULARY (EXPRESSIONS OF TIME)

yesterday | last week | last year | last night | a week ago | yesterday morning | yesterday afternoon | a year ago | in the past | lately | the day before yesterday | the week before last

CHANGING TO PAST TENSE
Present Simple past walk + ‘-ed’ walked talk talked love + ‘-d’ loved live lived

‘DID’ IN QUESTIONS
Present Past Do I like…? Did I like…? Do you like…? Did you like…? Does he/she like…? Did he/she like…? Do we like…? Did we like…? Do you like…? Did you like…? Do they like…? Did they like…?

NEGATIVE PAST TENSE
Positive Negative + 'not’
I did like I didn’t like you did like you didn’t like he/she/it did like he/she/it didn’t like you did like you didn’t like we did like we didn’t like they did like they didn’t like

PAST TENSE 'BE’
Present Past
I am I was
you are you were
he/she/it is he/she/it was
we are we were
you are you were
they are they were

WAS/WERE
Positive - Negative Question

I was, wasn’t I?
I wasn’t, was I …?
You were, weren’t you?
You weren’t, were you …?

MODALS

SHOULD, OUGHT TO

The verbs ‘should’ and ‘ought to’ are used to give advice.

You should go to the hospital.
You ought to go to the hospital.

HAD BETTER

‘had better’ + ‘infinitive’ = ‘really should’ + ‘infinitive’

You had better leave now. = You really should leave now.

MODALS OF PROBABILITY

They will be at work now.
= I’m sure they’re at work now.

They must be in Paris by now.
= I’m almost sure they’re in Paris now.

They might / may invite us to the party.
= There’s a good chance they’ll invite us to the party.

They could be at home.
= It’s possible that they’re at home.

You can’t be serious!
= I’m absolutely sure you’re not being serious.

FUTURES, THE FOUR

There are four ways to express the future:

SIMPLE PRESENT

The train leaves at 6

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

We’re having visitors tonight.

‘WILL’

I think it will snow tomorrow.

‘GOING TO’

She’s going to finish her schooling.

ADVERBS, PLACEMENT

Adverbs used to begin sentences/clauses

Connecting adverbs
To place an adverb at the beginning of a sentence or clause is also known as ‘initial position adverb placement’, and the adverbs that are commonly used in these positions are known as ‘connecting adverbs’, such as:

Consequently
However
Next
Still
Then

These adverbs are known as connecting adverbs, quite simply, because they are used at the beginnings of phrases and sentences to connect them to what has been said before. For example:

I did not care for her tone. However, I let it go.
I began to dislike my course within months having signed up for it. Consequently, I never did well.
That was the Medieval section of the museum; next, we have the Industrial Revolution.

Adverbs of time
Time adverbs, like ‘tomorrow’, ‘yesterday’ and ‘sometimes’, are among the most flexible of all adverbs, and can often take initial position.
For example:

Yesterday I was very busy, which is why I was unable to meet you.
Tomorrow I am leaving for Calcutta.
Sometimes we feel as if we do not belong in this group.

Adverbs in the middle

Focusing adverbs
‘Focusing adverbs’ are those adverbs that emphasise a part of the clause or sentence to which they belong, and are generally used mid-sentence. Focusing adverbs include adverbs of frequency (often, rarely, never, always, etc), adverbs of certainty (perhaps, probably, certainly, maybe, etc) and adverbs of comment (adverbs that are used to express opinion, such as smartly, responsibly, intelligently, etc).
For example:

You are always late.
I will probably be absent at the party.
He acted responsibly by informing the authorities about the wallet he had found.

Note: Adverbs of frequency are used before the main verb, not the auxiliary verb.

Adverbs to end sentences

This is the most common position for adverbs in sentences.

Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner are used to describe how something is done, and are generally placed at the ends of sentences or clauses. For example:

He wrote the answers correctly.
His stammer caused him to speak haltingly.

Adverbs of place
Adverbs of place are used to describe the place where an event occurs, and are also positioned at the ends of sentences or clauses.
For example:

Father is sleeping upstairs.
In a couple of days I will be travelling north.

Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time, as discussed earlier, can also find their ways to the ends of sentences or clauses.
For example:

I leave tomorrow afternoon.

ADJECTIVES

There are many adjectives that we have in English that end in -ED or -ING, using verbs.

An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe: the characteristic of a person or a thing. An adjective that ends in -ED is used to describe: a feeling / a reaction.

He is most interested in our proposal. - (He is curious about something)
This is an interesting proposal- (This will provoke your interest)

ADJECTIVES, DEMONSTRATIVE

Demonstrative adjectives show whether the noun they refer to is singular or plural and whether it is located near to or far from the speaker or writer.

this, that, these, those

A demonstrative adjective is used to modify a noun to point out or demonstrate (a) specific item(s).

This report is not mine. That one is mine. These reports are more recent than those.

This and that modify singular nouns; whereas, these and those modify plural nouns.

Whose are these cigarettes? Can I have one?

Remember, the word “kind” is singular, and these and those modify plural nouns.

This kind of thing — becomes — These kinds of things.

ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

1. before a noun: new project.

2. after the verb BE, BECOME, SEEM, STAY, REMAIN:

Your ideas are interesting.

The issue is becoming crtical.

She looks unconvinced.

Share prices remain high.

3. with some verbs after the object: My colleague likes to keep her desk tidy.

4. the+adjective: the young, the rich, the French

5. after a noun (certain phrases): the people present, the team concerned

Order of adjectives placed before a noun:
Determiner Opinion Size Shape Age Color Origin Material Purpose/Type Noun
at/the/two

nice big round old blue French glass fruit bowl

Where there are several adjectives to describe the same noun, we generally proceed from the subjective to the more objective.

The adjectives new, foreign and aggressive could all be used to describe a business competitor. It is in no question that the competitor is foreign. This is objectively verifiable and though we may also agree that the competitor is new, this fact is perhaps less objective than their nationality. The notion of aggressive is clearly subjective in as far we may disagree.

It is therefore most natural in English to say

An aggressive new foreign competitor.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

Possessive adjectives, also known as possessive determiners, are a part of a speech that modifies a noun by attributing possession (or other sense of belonging) to someone or something.

In English they are my, your, his, her, its, our, their.

They are found before the noun, e.g. meeting, name, idea

our meeting
her name
my idea

Possessive pronouns are very similar in meaning, but act as a different part of speech.

Since they are pronouns they replace nouns and often answer the question: Whose is it? or To whom does it belong?

Is this report yours?
That idea was his?
It was mine.

Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns
my mine
his his
her hers
its its
our ours
your yours
their theirs

GRADABLE ADJECTIVES

Adjectives describe characteristics of nouns. Some characteristics can vary in intensity or “gradability”. The adjective easy is gradable. We can talk about HOW EASY something is, depending on the context.

not particulary easy, quite easy, rather easy, easy, very easy, extremely easy, easier, the easiest.

Non-gradable Adjectives

Other charactersitics cannot vary in intensity or grade because they are:

extremes (for example: exploding)

absolutes (for example: dead)

classifying (for example: nuclear)

The adjectives freezing, dead and nuclear are non-gradable.

Adjectives that can be gradable and non-gradable

Some adjectives may have more than one meaning or sense. It’s possible for the same adjective to be gradable with one sense and non-gradable in another sense.

For example:

He’s got a very old car. (not young) I saw my old boyfriend yesterday. (former, ex-)
He is very common.(vulgar) “The” is a very common word in English. ( prevalent)
The two countries’ common border poses problems. (shared)

Adverbs used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives

The adverbs really (very much) and fairly and pretty (both meaning “to a significant degree, but less than very”) can often be used with gradable and non-gradable adjectives:

gradable non-gradable

Please don’t forget! It’s really important. He was really terrified. He’s a fairly rich man.
It’s a fairly impossible job. He’s pretty tall. It’s pretty ridiculous when you think about it.

“Quite” with gradable and non-gradable adjectives

The meaning of the adverb “quite” changes according to the type of adjective we use it with:

It’s quite warm today. gradable = fairly, rather
Are you quite certain? non-gradable = completely, absolutely

Non-gradable adverbs Non-gradable adjectives

singular awful extreme
utterly excellent
completely terrified
totally dead absolute
nearly impossible
virtually unique
essentially chemical classifying
mainly digital
almost domestic

Grading adverbs

a little, dreadfully, extremely, fairly, hugely, immensely, intensely, rather, reasonably, slightly, unusually, very

gradable adjectives

angry, big, busy, clever, cold, deep, fast, friendly, good, happy, high, hot, important, long, popular, rich, strong, tall, warm, weak, young

ADVERBS OF TIME

Adverbs of time tell us when an action happened, but also for how long, and how often.

When: today, yesterday, later, now, last year
For how long: all day, not long, for a while, since last year
How often: sometimes, frequently, never, often, yearly

When adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

The share-holder meeting took place yesterday.
I’m going to call the supplier tomorrow.

Some “when” adverbs can be put in other positions to give a different emphasis

Compare:

Later we discussed the contract. (the time is more important)
We later discussed the contract. (this is more formal, like a report)
We discussed the contract later. (this is neutral, no particular emphasis)

“For how long” adverbs are usually placed at the end of the sentence:

She stayed in the office all day.
She worked in the US for a year.

Common adverbs of time:

ago
already
before
early
earlier
eventually
finally
first
formerly
just
last
late
later
lately
next
now
previously
recently
since
soon
still
yet

ADVERBS OF MANNER

Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding ‘-ly’ to an adjective. Adverbs formed in this way usually have a similar meaning to the adjective.

bad => badly , smooth => smoothly

beautiful => beautifully, careful => carefully

There are sometimes changes in spelling when an adverb is formed from an adjective.

‘-le’ changes to ‘-ly’: gentle => gently

‘-y’ changes to ‘-ily’: easy => easily

‘-ic’ changes to ‘-ically’: automatic => automatically

‘-ue’ changes to ‘-uly’: true => truly

‘-ll’ changes to ‘-lly’: full => fully

‘-al’ changes to ‘-ally’ personal => personally

Adverbs of viewpoint

honestly, seriously, confidentially, personally, surprisingly, ideally, economically, officially, obviously, clearly, surely, undoubtedly.

There are some adverbs and adverbial expressions which tell us about the speaker’s viewpoint or opinion about an action, or make some comment on the action. Frankly, I think we are going in the wrong direction. (in my honest opinion) Theoretically, you should always have a meeting agenda. Personally, I’d rather we book the hotel before we leave. Surprisingly, this car is cheaper than the smaller model. Geographically, Britain is rather cut off from the rest of Europe.

Adverbs of Comment

definitely, certainly, obviously, simply.

These are very similar to viewpoint adverbs, and often the same words, but they go in a different position - after the verb to be and before the main verb.

She is certainly the best person for the job. You obviously enjoyed your meal.

Exceptions

We cannot form adverbs from adjectives that end in ‘-ly’. (e.g. ugly) Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives. (e.g. fast, late…)

Note that ‘hardly’ and ‘lately’ are not adverbs of manner and have different meanings from the adjectives ‘hard’ and ‘late’.

Irregular forms

good => well

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb.

Common adverbs of degree:

Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely.

Adverbs of degree are usually placed:

before the adjective or adverb they are modifying: e.g. The water was extremely cold.
before the main verb: e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished.

Examples

She doesn’t quite know what she’ll do after university.
They are completely exhausted from the trip.
I am too tired to go out tonight.
He hardly noticed what she was saying.

Alphabetical list of common single-word degree adverbs

almost

absolutely

awfully

badly

barely

completely

decidedly

deeply

enough

enormously

entirely

extremely

fairly

far

fully

greatly

hardly

highly

how

incredibly

indeed

intensely

just

least

less

little

lots

most

much

nearly

perfectly

positively

practically

pretty

purely

quite

rather

really

scarcely

simply

somewhat

strongly

terribly

thoroughly

too

totally

utterly

very

virtually

well

INTENSIFIERS

Intensifier is a term for a modifier that amplifies the meaning of the word it modifies, often an adjective.

Examples are:

very, extremely, highly, greatly, really, remarkably, particularly, totally.

More idiomatic intensifiers include:

terribly, dreadfully, awfully and bloody, which are common in the UK.

Other intensifiers like dead, real, right, quite (see gradable adjectives) are also common:

dead easy, real cool, quite impossible (non-gradable)

Note: An intensifier is the opposite of a qualifier, a modifier that weakens the word modified:

“fairly,” “somewhat,” “rather,” “a little,” or “barely.”

These words are normally placed before the indefinite article.

Such and what are often used to express surprise or other emotions:

Examples:

What a superb presentation!
She’s such a sharp woman!
What an incredible result!
He’s such a fantastic team-player!

Rather and quite are ‘commenting’ words, referring to the degree of a particular quality. They can express disappointment, pleasure, or other emotions, and are used before a/an + adjective + noun:

Examples

It’s rather a disappointing outcome. (= I’m a bit disappointed)
It was quite a good meeting.(= I was agreeably surprised.)
He’s had quite a bad accident. (= I’m worried)
I’ve just met rather an interesting guy. (= I’m pleased)

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

These adverbs answer the question ‘How often…?’

always = 100%
usually = 80%
often = 50%
sometimes = 30%
never = 0%

Adverbs of definite frequence:

hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
every second, once a minute, twice a year
once, twice, once or twice, three times

Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END position. Look at these examples:

Most companies pay taxes yearly.
The manager checks the toilets every hour.
The directors meet weekly to review progress.

Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go at the FRONT, for example:

Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads.

Adverbs of indefinite frequency
• never, seldom, sometimes, often, always

Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go BEFORE the main verb (except the main verb “to be”): 100% always, constantly

We usually go shopping on Saturday. usually, normally
I have often done that. frequently, regularly
She is always late. often

Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently, and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a sentence:

50% sometimes

Sometimes they come and stay with us. occasionally
I play tennis occasionally. rarely, infrequently

Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with “very”: seldom

We see them rarely. hardly ever
John eats meat very seldom. 0% never

common advererbs of frequency

definite:

annually
daily
fortnightly
hourly
monthly
nightly
quarterly
weekly
yearly

indefinite:

always
constantly
ever
frequently
generally
infrequently
never
normally
occasionally
often
rarely
regularly
seldom
sometimes
regularly
usually

EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER

These distributive words are normally used with singular nouns, and are placed before the noun.

Each, either and neither can be used with plural nouns but must be followed by ‘of’:

Each is a way of seeing the members of a group as individuals:

Each employee received a bonus
Each of the employees received a bonus.

Every is a way of seeing a group as a series of members:

Every worker in the factory is aware of safety procedures.

It can also express different points in a series, especially with time expressions:

Every two weeks Nathalie runs a training session.
A company bulletin is published every month.

Either and Neither are concerned with distribution between two things - either is positive, neither is negative:

Which direction are you going? Either will do.
I can stay in either hotel, they are both good
Neither date is any good for me, they’re both impossible.
Which meeting room do you want? Neither of them - they’re both too small.

ALL + 1 -

Uncountable noun

Countable noun in the plural

Uncountable noun in the plural

Countable noun in the plural
2 the
3 my, your, etc.
4a this, that
4b these, those
BOTH + 1 - Countable noun in the plural
2 the
3 my, your, etc.
4 these, those
HALF + 1 a

Uncountable

countable noun
2 the
3 my, your, etc.
4 this, that, these, those

ZERO ARTICLE

There is no article:

with names of countries (if singular)

Brazil, Russian, India and China are now important economic powers. He’s just returned from Kenya. (But: I’m going to the United States next week.)

with the names of languages:

French is a particularly difficult language to speak well. English uses many words of Latin origin. Finnish is unique with Hungarian in not being an Indo-European language.

with the names of meals.

Lunch can last up to two hours. Dinner is often referred to as tea in Britain. Breakfast is the the most important meal of the day.

with people’s names (if singular):

Kevin is an English trainer. Jeffrey Edwards is the new Logistics manager. (But: the Mitchells are coming tomorrow.)

with titles and names:

Prince Charles is Queen Elizabeth’s son. President Obama was raised in Hawaii by his grandparents. Colonel Matterson fought in both Gulf wars. But: the Queen, the Pope. (who are unique)

After the 's possessive case:

His brother’s company. Peter’s office.

with professions:

Engineering is a useful career. He’ll probably go into politics.

with shops:

I’ll get the card at Marks & Spencer’s. Can you go to Macey’s for me?

with years:

1999 proved to be a pivotal year in our company’s development. What were you doing between 1995 and 1997?

With uncountable nouns:

Determination and rigour are qualities we are looking for. Gold is often considered a refuge at times of financial turbulence. Production was interrupted so that we could install new equipment.

with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands:

The Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe. She lives near Lake Leman. Have you ever visited Corsica?

with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports:

Victoria Station is in the centre of London. Can you direct me to Piccadilly? She lives in Miami. They’re flying from JFK.

in some fixed expressions, for example:

by car
by train
by air
on foot
on holiday
on air (in broadcasting)
at school
at work
at University
in church
in prison
in bed

NEGATION

In English, we form a negative sentence by adding the word ‘not’ after the first auxiliary verb in the positive sentence.

When there is no auxiliary verb in the positive sentence, as in the Present Simple and Past Simple tenses, then you add one (do).
Tense Negative element + contracted forms Examples
Present simple do + not = don’t / does not = doesn’t I do not play. / She doesn’t play.
Past simple did + not = didn’t I didn’t play.
Present progressive am + not (* NO amn’t!) / is + not = isn’t I am not playing. / He isn’t playing.

Pay attention:

When an auxiliary verb (including modals) is used, the main verb is invariable (no -s or -ed ending),

The verb to be uses a different negation pattern.

PURPOSE CLAUSES

You use a purpose clause when you want to state the purpose of the action in the independent clause. The most common type of purpose clause is :

(in order) to - infinitive clause.

Sarah went to the computer lab (in order) to print out her research report.

In formal writing, in order to and so as to are often used.

‘The company conducted a survey in order to have its clients’ views.’

You can also introduce a purpose clause with so that or in order that. These purpose clauses usually contain a modal.

He adjusted the overhead projector so that the others would be able to see the chart more clearly.

The speaker finished his presentation five minutes early so that the audience could ask him questions.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun phrase, most commonly a noun.

The phrase “the manager who wasn’t there” contains the noun manager, which is modified by the relative clause who wasn’t there.

A relative clause can also modify a pronoun, as in

“he to whom I have written”,

or a noun phrase which already contains a modifier, as in

“the meeting in the conference room, which is about to start”.

Relative pronoun Use Example
who subject or object pronoun for people I told you about the woman who called me yesterday.
which subject or object pronoun for animals and things Did you see the email which I received?
referring to a whole sentence He couldn’t contact me, which surprised me.
whose possession for people, animals, and things Do you know the guy in marketing whose presentation was such a success.
whom object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer ‘who’) I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.
that subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible) I just love the new advertising campaign that they have designed.
More rare examples :
whichever / whoever / whom whose / whosever / whomever

EMBEDDED CLAUSES

Embedded clauses are constructions that have been “fixed in the context”.

Unlike subordinate clauses, which are added to the main clause and could be omitted without making the sentence ungrammatical, these type of clause becomes a necessary part of the main clause

Embedded clauses would, more often than not, make a sentence ungrammatical if they were omitted.

Certain types of nominal clauses and relative clauses are not “subordinate” but “embedded” clauses. Why? Because, unlike subordinate clauses, embedded clauses are necessary for a sentence to be grammatical. Embedded clauses are “high rank” propositions inside a larger unit; they can be thought of as “sentences within larger sentences”.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

A group of words that has both a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence. Also known as a dependent clause. They are often introduced by a conjunction.

simple conjunctions: when, whenever, where, wherever, because, if, unless, until, while, as, although

conjunctive groups: as if, as though, even if, even though, even when, soon after, no sooner

“Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect.” (Mark Twain)
“When I’m good, I’m very, very good, but when I’m bad, I’m better.” (Mae West)
“Memory is deceptive because it is coloured by today’s events.” (Albert Einstein)
“If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.” (John F. Kennedy)

Subordinate clause
Examples

temporal: I’ll ring you again before I leave.
conditional: I’ll be here at nine, if I can catch a cab.
concessive: Even though he worked hard, he didn’t make the deadline.
reason: Paul was late for the meeting because he missed the train.
result: I’ve forgotten my password so I can’t read my e-mails.
comparative: This is a lot more difficult than I expected.

ZERO CONDITIONAL

When it rains, you get wet. (of course!)
If it rains, you will get wet. (so take an umbrella, stupid!)
If it rained, you would get wet. (it probably won’t rain)
If it had rained, you would have got wet. (but it didn’t rain)

THE CONDITIONAL TYPES 0 - 3

0 → Factual description if = when (present simple + present simple)
1 → Future possibility (present simple + modal)
2 → Hypothetical possibility (past simple + past modal)
3 → Hypothetical impossibility (past perfect simple + conditional perfect)

TABLE OF CONTENTS B1-2

ALL, EVERYTHING, EVERYONE
ZERO ARTICLE
CAN vs COULD
COMPARATIVES | CONJUNCTIONS
CONTINUOUS AND SIMPLE PAST
CONTINUOUS AND SIMPLE PRESEN
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
CONJUNCTIONS
CONDITIONALS
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
EXPRESSIONS WITH GO
IDIOMS | MAKE AND DO
MUST HAVE, COULD HAVE
NEED, REQUIRE AND WANT
PREPOSITIONS
PASSIVE
PAST TENSES
QUANTIFIERS
QUESTIONS
REPORTED SPEECH
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
SAY, TELL, SPEAK
SINCE
SOME OR ANY
SO | SUGGESTIONS
TELLING TIME
USED TO
VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUND OR INFINITIVE
WHEN, AS SOON AS
WILL, WON’T, WOULD
WILL
WHICH FORM OF ‘0’

NEED, REQUIRE AND WANT WITH INFINITIVE OR GERUND

Using the passive using need, require and want

Need, require and want can be followed by the active or passive to-infinitives to express active or passive meanings, respectively:

I need to make a phone call > a call needs to be made.
Sometimes, people need to be told the truth / the truth needs to be told.

I handle many letters from abroad for my job > My job requires me to handle many letters from abroad.
They require that I send the information asap >They required the information to be sent as soon as possible.

I wanted to stay for a few more days. > I wanted my stay to be extended a few more days.
It was obvious that he wanted me to invite him. > It was obvious that he wanted to be invited.

But active gerunds after these verbs express passive meanings:

Your hair needs cutting. (It should be cut.)
These photos require careful handling. (They should be handled carefully.)
The windows want cleaning. (They should be cleaned.)

ARTICLE, ZERO

No article is used with street names, cities, states, countries, mountains, lakes, islands, sports, languages or nationalities.

However, mountain ranges, a group of lakes or kingdoms or republics need an article:

the Alps, the Great Lakes, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland

Most proper nouns (names) take no article at all.
Examples:

Nick and Jane are getting married.
Bolivia is my favorite country.

ARTICLE
’The’ is used for something specific.
Examples:

the ice cream shop on the corner
the tallest mountain in the world
The cup of coffee that I drank tasted like mud.

A
’A’ is used for unspecified singular things.
Examples:

She has a boyfriend.
Where can I get a cup of coffee?
If I had drunk too much last night, I would have a headache today.

UNSPECIFIED THINGS
Unspecified plural things do not take any article.
Example:

We ordered hamburgers and fries.

GENERAL CLASSES
General classes of things do not take any article.
Examples:

Ethanol is ecological.
Advertising is a powerful force.
Math was my favorite subject in school.

Many geographic features do not take any article.
Examples:

Bear Lake
Mount Everest
Niagara Falls

But plural geographic features usually take 'the.’
Examples:

The Himalayas
The Appalachians
The Great Lakes

DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES)

The indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ refer to any member of a group - not a specific object.

I need a new battery for my flashlight.
I want an orange.

The definite article ‘the’ is used for a specific noun and for superlatives.

The old battery is dead.
The weather is freezing.
He is the fastest skier.

The zero article ‘the’ is used for general classes of things:

White vans are everywhere.

BE USED TO, USE TO

Used as an adjective. Use to be + used to. This means to be accustomed to.
For example

I can study with the TV on. I am used to it. It means I am accustomed, adjusted, or don’t mind having the TV play while I’m studying.
Tim had a hard time living in Tokyo. He wasn’t used to so many people. Tim didn’t have experience being with big crowds of people before.

Used as a verb. Use to + verb is a regular verb and means something that happened but doesn’t happen any more. It uses -ed to show past tense. But since it always means something that happened in the past, it should always use past tense.
For example

I used to go to school in Paris. (I went to school there before, but now I don’t.) Or, When Joshua was a child, he used to climb trees. (Now he doesn’t climb trees.)

Remember, we always use this word when talking about the past. So when do you use use to without the d at the end? When the base form of the verb is used.
Examples

She didn’t use to swim before noon. (Now she does swim before noon.) Or Did your father use to ride a horse? In these cases the past tense is shown with the did and didn’t.

‘USED TO’ AND ‘DIDN’T USE TO’)

‘Used to’ + ‘infinitive’ describes habitual actions or states in the past. I used to smoke. (In the past I smoked, but I don’t smoke now.)

The structure ‘didn’t use to’ + infinitive describes an action that didn’t happen in the past, but that happens now. Jason didn’t use to smoke. (Jason didn’t smoke in the past, but he smokes now.)

CAN vs COULD

CAN
’can’ is used to express ‘possibility or ability’

I have a key to the office so I can get in), to make requests
Can you book the main conference room, please?

and to ask for or give permission

Can I use this computer?
No, but you can use the laptop over there.

COULD
’could’ is used to express what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do in the past

When I worked there, I had a key to the office so I could get in.

When we are talking about one specific occassion, then ‘could’ may not be used! Instead, we use ‘be able to.’ However, if the sentence is in the negative, both ‘couldn’t’ and ‘not be able to’ are possible!

In “Requests,” both ‘can’ and ‘could’ are used, but remind students that ‘could’ here is not a past tense. It’s just a more polite form.

Can / Could you book the main conference room, please?

‘could’ is not used to ask for permission. A more formal alternative to ‘can’ would be ‘may’ - not ‘could.’

‘be able to’ may also be used to express ability.

‘Are you able to book the main conference room?’

is not a request, but a question about ability.)

Unlike the modal verb ‘can’, ‘be able to’ (which is not a modal verb) can be used in all tenses. (I was able to swim when I was five. I will be able to swim … / I have been able to swim …etc.)

CONJUNCTIONS

Using connecting words to add information depending on the rest of the sentence for its meaning

Conjunctions join clauses:

I’ll go out to lunch with you. I’m not paying.
I’ll go out to lunch with you, but I’m not paying.

You finished the project on time. Now you’ll get a bonus.
You’ll get a bonus now because you finished the project on time.

This is the place where I put my books.
Summertime is when I go swimming.
I can’t play football because I have hurt my foot.
I ate the ice cream until it was gone.
I read my book while I was waiting for you.
Let me know if you want to leave.
Although I was having a good time, we left.
I watched TV all day so that I could see my favorite star

COMPARATIVES

adjective + ‘-er’ + ‘than’

slow slower than
nice nicer than
happy happier than

‘more’ + adjective + ‘than’

ex-pen-sive more expensive than

CONTINUOUS AND SIMPLE PAST

‘was’/‘were’ + verb + ‘-ing’

Relating unfinished past events:

I watched TV from 5 to 11 p.m. Jane arrived at 9 p.m.
While I was watching TV, Jane arrived.
What were you doing when the storm hit?
I was painting a picture.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS, COMMON

Countable nouns have a plural form. Uncountable nouns have no plural form. This is a list of common uncountable nouns:

advice applause assistance
baggage camping cash
clothing conduct courage
employment equipment evidence
furniture harm health
homework housing information
knowledge leisure luck
luggage machinery money
music news nonsense
parking pay permission
photography poetry pollution
produce progress publicity
research scenery shopping
sightseeing transport underwear
violence weather work

Some words are uncountable in British English but countable in American English.

UK - US
accommodation accommodations

Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. Here are some more uncountable nouns:

music, art, love, happiness, advice, information, news, furniture, luggage, rice, sugar, butter, water, electricity, gas, power, money, currency

Uncountable nouns usually take a singular verb.

This news is very important.
Your luggage looks heavy.

Uncountable nouns usually do not use the indefinite article a/an. We cannot say “an information” or “a music”. But we can say a something of: a piece of news, a bottle of water, a grain of rice.

We can use some and any with uncountable nouns, as well as a little and much.

I’ve got some money.
Have you got any rice?
I’ve got a little money.
I haven’t got much rice.

CONJUNCTIONS w. CONDITIONALS

CONJUNCTIONS

Conditional clauses can be introduced by different conjunctions.

unless = if not

Unless you tell her immediately, I’ll leave.
= If you don’t tell her immediately, I’ll leave.

provided that = only if

I’ll ask him to come provided that you promise not to talk to him. = I’ll ask him to come only if you promise not to talk to him.

in case = because it might

Bring your umbrella in case it rains. = Bring your umbrella because it might rain.

If you had not started your English course …
If you hadn’t accepted the position you have in your present company …
If the internet hadn’t been invented …
If there hadn’t been an industrial revolution …

CONJUNCTIONS w. SIMPLE PAST AND PRESENT PERFECT

The simple past is used after the conjunctions ‘after,’ ‘when,’ ‘until,’ ‘as soon as,’ ‘once,’ and ‘by the time’ if the action started and finished in the past.

As soon as we finished the exam, we went to the restaurant. = We finished the exam and immediately went to the restaurant.

The present perfect is used after the conjunctions ‘after,’ ‘when,’ ‘until,’ ‘as soon as,’ ‘once’ and ‘by the time’ if the action has not yet been completed.

As soon as we’ve finished the exam, we’ll go to the restaurant. = We’re still doing the exam, but when it’s over, we’ll go to the restaurant.

CONJUNCTION ‘SO’ and ‘BECAUSE’

When using ‘so,’ the cause comes first and the effect comes second.

Cause and Effect

I dropped the glass so it broke.
He didn’t study so he failed his test.
When using ‘because’ the order is switched.

Effect and Cause

The glass broke because I dropped it.
He failed the test because he didn’t study.

CONDITIONAL, ZERO AND FIRST

Some situations are always true when conditions are met.
The zero conditional is made: ‘If’ + present simple condition + present simple outcome.

What do you do in these situations? How often do they occur? What do you do to keep them from happening?

If you oversleep …
If the phone rings when you are taking a shower …
If you lose your keys …
If you forget someone’s birthday …
If the shops are closed and you need something …

FIRST CONDITIONAL)

If + present simple + ‘will’ future

If I sleep well tonight, I will get up early tomorrow.
If it is a nice day, we will go to the beach.

The ‘will’ clause can also come first. In this form a comma is not used.

I will get up early tomorrow if I sleep well tonight.
We will go to the beach if it is a nice day.

When the sentence refers to a general situation or a daily occurrence, the simple present tense is used.

If I sleep well, I get up early.
I get up early if I sleep well.

CONDITIONALS w. CONJUNCTIONS.

CONJUNCTIONS

Conditional clauses can be introduced by different conjunctions.

unless = if not

Unless you tell her immediately, I’ll leave.
= If you don’t tell her immediately, I’ll leave.

provided that = only if

I’ll ask him to come provided that you promise not to talk to him. = I’ll ask him to come only if you promise not to talk to him.

in case = because it might

Bring your umbrella in case it rains. = Bring your umbrella because it might rain.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES, MIXED

Type I: If + present + ‘will’ future
Type II: If + simple past + would + infinitive
Type III: If + past perfect + would have + past participle

Sometimes, for logical reasons, it’s necessary to mix two different types of conditionals.

If you hadn’t eaten so much, you wouldn’t be ten pounds heavier now.
(If + past perfect + would + infinitive)

CONDITIONAL, SECOND AND THIRD

Conditional clauses, type II, express wishes or dreams. They also may be used for giving advice.

If + simple past + ‘would / should / could’ + infinitive
= If + unlikely event + desired result

If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.
If I were you, I would stop smoking.
In conditional clauses, type II, the form ‘were’ is often used instead of ‘was,’ especially in a formal style.
If I were you, I would exercise more.
If I were the president, I would reduce taxes.

THIRD CONDITIONAL)

Conditional clauses, type III, describe imagined situations in the past. The situation did not happen in the past andcannot occur in the future.

If + past perfect + would / should / could have + participle

= If + imagined situation + imagined result

If he had wanted my help, he would have told me.
To make the sentence negative, add ‘not’ after 'would / should / could.
If she had been smart, she wouldn’t have dropped out of school.

** If you were the head of state/president of your country for one week, what would you do? (This topic could be related to current events/events in the news.)

** If you could travel to any country in the world, which country would you travel to and why? ** Can you think of a question in the second conditional to ask me?

Are you free on Monday?
Can we meet at 4 o’clock?
What are you doing at the weekend?
Perhaps we can meet during the summer break. What are your plans?

Conditional clauses, type III, describe imagined situations in the past. The situation did not happen in the past and cannot occur in the future.

If + past perfect + would / should / could have + infinitive
= If + imagined situation + imagined result

If he had wanted my help, he would have told me.
To make the sentence negative, add ‘not’ after 'would / should / could.'
If she had been smart, she wouldn’t have dropped out of school.

FUTURE CONTINUOUS

At seven p.m. Ben will be listening to a talk.

FUTURE PERFECT)

The future perfect (‘will have’ + past participle) describes an action that will be completed by a given point in the future.

Sea levels will have risen by the middle of this century.

WHEN, AS SOON AS)

‘when’ = for two things happening at about the same time

When I arrive in New York, I’ll send you an e-mail.
When I have arrived in New York, I’ll send you an e-mail.

‘as soon as’ = when one thing happens immediately after another

As soon as the song ends, we’ll leave.
As soon as this song has ended, we’ll leave.

In these structures, either the simple present or the present perfect may be used. There is no difference in meaning.

FUTURE WITH GOING TO

The ‘going to’ form describes planned actions in the future. It is constructed with the present tense form of the auxiliary verb ‘be’ + the present participle of the verb ‘go’ + the ‘to’ infinitive of the main verb.

The ‘going to’ future is used for plans.

Example:
‘Be’ + ‘going to’ + infinitive

We are going to go home on Monday.
We are going to fly to Chicago.

The ‘going to’ future is used to describe a situation which will very likely happen:

Look at all those black clouds! It’s going to rain soon!

‘GOING TO’ OR ‘WILL?’)
The future with ‘will’ is used for:

instant decisions, including offers for help.
predictions.
expressing determination.

With adverbs
Tell me one or two things you’re going to do … tomorrow, next week, soon, immediately, later, or the day after tomorrow?

EXPRESSIONS with GO

I’m very easy going , I go with the glow
During the negotiations, she will act as a go between
Martin doesn’t like working in teams, he usually goes it alone
If you are not interested in working as a broker, perhaps there is something else you could have a go at
If they really work hard on the project, they have good chances of making a go of it

‘MAKE’ AND ‘DO’

‘Make’ means ‘create.’

Let’s make an offer. OK, I’ll make the coffee.

‘Do’ is used when talking about general situations. It means ‘to be active in an activity.’

Do something! What will you do?

THE VERB ‘MAKE’ + PREPOSITION)

make of sth / sb

I don’t know what to make of it. (= I’m not sure what I think about this.)

make off with :

He made off with my purse. (= He ran off with my purse.)

make up for :

I will make up for the lost time. (= I will compensate for the lost time.)

THE VERB ‘DO’ + PREPOSITION)

do without :

I can do without the jacket. (= I can manage without the jacket)

do away with :

She did away with a lot of the paperwork.

MUST HAVE, COULD HAVE

Must have (to express conclusions or inferences about the past)

Sally lost her job. She must have been very upset!
Could have (to talk about past events which did not happen)
He could have said goodbye if he had wanted to. But he left without a word.

Should have (to make recommendations directed at the past)

You should have converted to Buddhism. But you didn’t.

MUST, HAVE TO, NEED TO

The modal verbs ‘must’, ‘have to’ und ‘need to’ with an infinitive express that something is necessary:

You must / have to / need to write your resume.

The modal verb ‘must’ means ‘have to.’ ‘Must’ is used to describe a duty, or something that is necessary.

John must go to work. = It is necessary for John to work.

When ‘must’ is used with the 1st person singular, it often means 'mustn’t forget to … ’

I must bake a cake. = I mustn’t forget to bake a cake.

‘Must’ can only be used in the present tense. So, ‘have to’ is used in all other tenses:

When did you leave? = I had to leave at 9.

There is a difference in meaning in the negative forms.

You don’t have to work = It’s not necessary to work.
You mustn’t work. = You are not allowed to work.

Student: I must write some e-mails.
Trainer: Ah, you need to write some e-mails. ‘Must’ is not wrong, but ‘have to’ and ‘need to’ are frequently used to emphasize that an action is necessary.

PASSIVE VOICE

You use the passive voice whenever you do not know or do not want to mention the person carrying out the action.

The shirts have been ironed.

Describing the state of things

Describing what has to be done

The passive voice describes what happens to someone or something. The ‘doer’ is not always included.
Active Passive

People build houses. Houses are built (by people).
Waiters served dinner. Dinner was served.

THE PASSIVE VOICE IN THE SIMPLE PRESENT)

Active: The bars serve lunch from 1 to 4.
Passive: Lunch is served from 1 to 4.
Active: The engineer designs the cars.
Passive:The cars are designed.
Active: The students ask me questions.
Passive I am asked questions.

THE PASSIVE WITH ‘HAVE TO’)
The passive voice can be used to emphasize the necessity of an action by using a form of ‘have to’ + ‘be’ + past participle. This means that something ‘must’ be done.

The letter has to be written.
The shirt has to be ironed.

THE PASSIVE VOICE)

The letters are written.
The letters are being written.
The letters were written.
The letters were being written.
The letters have been written.
The letters had been written.
The letters will be written.

PAST PERFECT

The past perfect describes an action that takes place before another action in the past.

Carol left the office at 8.45 a.m.
Bob arrived at 9 a.m.
Carol had left when Bob arrived.

‘had’ + past participle

I had given
you had given
he/she/it had given
we had given
you had given
they had given

CONJUNCTIONS

I arrived at 10 a.m. John left at 10:15 a.m. John left after I had arrived.
I arrived at 10 a.m. John left at 10.02 a.m. John left as soon as I had arrived.
I arrived at 10 a.m. John left at 9.55 a.m. John had left before I arrived.
I called at 9:45 a.m. John was still there. John had been there when I called.

PAST, SIMPLE

The simple past form of regular verbs end in '-ed.'
worked, played, tried, stopped, etc.

There are no rules for irregular verbs:

Infinitive simple past past participle
break broke broken
bring brought brought
come came come
do did done
drink drank drunk
fight fought fought
have had had
know knew known
lose lost lost
throw threw thrown
win won won

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

‘Have’/‘has’ + ‘been’ + verb + ‘-ing’ describes an action that started in the past and is still happening.

I’ve been reading this book all day.
He’s been waiting at the door for 20 minutes.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

The present continuous describes what is happening now.
‘Be’ + verb + ‘-ing’

I’m reading a book now.
He’s sleeping at the moment

The present continuous describes a future arrangement.

We’re eating at Chez Robert tonight.
He’s leaving for Brooklyn tomorrow.
They’re starting college in September

Questions:
‘Be’ + subject + verb + ‘-ing’

Is she going to the store?

‘Wh- question’ + ‘be’ + subject + verb + ‘-ing’

When is she going to the store?

Questions and answers:

What are you doing?
I’m listening to you.
Is John studying?
No, he’s not studying. He’s watching TV

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The past perfect continuous describes an ongoing action.

The structure is ‘had + been + verb + ing’

I had been sleeping when the phone rang.
Why was he so thin last year? He had been dieting.

IDIOMS, WEATHER

“it never rains but it pours”

proverb: misfortunes or difficult situations tend to follow each other in rapid succession or to arrive all at the same time.

a storm in a tea cup – a problem is exaggerate
to have your head in the clouds – to have unrealistic ideas (to have your feet on the ground)
to weather a storm - to survive a dangerous or difficult time
to be snowed under - to have too much work. "I am snowed under"
to chase rainbows - try to do something too difficult
come rain or shine - not if but when

VOCABULARY (WEATHER IDIOMS)

to take a rain check | to save for a rainy day | to be a fair weather friend | to make hay while the sun shines (to strike while the iron is hot) | to be snowed under | to wait to see which way the wind blows

BODY IDIOMS

to not take one’s eyes off someone
= to not be able to stop looking at someone

to talk behind someone’s back
= to speak negatively about people when they’re not there

to have butterflies in one’s stomach
= to feel nervous

to get something off one’s chest
= to talk about something that has been worrying you

to put one’s foot down
= to use one’s authority to stop sth from happening

to cry one’s eyes out
= to cry a lot

t>o laugh one’s head off
= to laugh a lot

to pour one’s heart out
= to tell one’s secret feelings and worries

to put one’s hand out
= to hold one’s hand out

PRESENT SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS?

The present continuous describes what is happening now.
‘Be’ + verb + ‘-ing’

I’m reading a book now.
He’s sleeping at the moment.

PRESENT SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS?

Simple present:

What does Sarah do every day?
She usually goes to bed at 10.
She often gets up at 7.

Present continuous:

Where’s Tom? I need his help.
Oh, he’s playing football.
And what are Bill and Mark doing?
They’re reading at the moment.

PAST CONTINUOUS

‘was’/‘were’ + verb + ‘-ing’

I watched TV from 5 to 11 p.m. Jane arrived at 9 p.m.
While I was watching TV, Jane arrived.
What were you doing when the storm hit?
I was painting a picture.

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions describe the relationship of a person or a thing to another person or thing. Usually they stand in frontof nouns or pronouns.

prepositions of place

at, in, on, over, under

prepositions of time

before, after, from, at, by, for, in, on, until

prepositions of movement

from, to, into, onto, off, out of

prepositions of modality

with, between, by

Use on with days, in with months, at with time, by or before or until with deadline, for with duration, from or since with duration with a specific start time

PASSIVE VOICE w. THE WILL FUTURE

Is used for making predictions.

The passive in the will future is formed with ‘will be’ + past participle.

The letter will be written.
The shirt will not be ironed.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR THE FUTURE

The present continuous is used to describe plans that were made in the past but will take place in the future. The present continuous form is constructed using the auxiliary verb ‘be’ + the ‘present participle’ of the main verb.

Example:

I am meeting him this afternoon.
We are having dinner this evening.

PAST, PRESENT PERFECT

The present perfect is formed with ‘have’ + past participle.

It has worked very well for years.
I have studied for many years.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS)
The past perfect continuous describes an action that was in progress when another action began.

John had been cycling for 2 hours before we joined him.

The present perfect is often used with the words ‘just’, ‘already’ and ‘yet.’

Clarify that ‘yet’ is typically only used in questions and negative answers.

Point out the position of ‘just,’ ‘already’ and ‘yet.’

Note:
just = a short time ago
already = sooner than expected
yet = until now

PHRASAL VERBS

QUANTIFIERS, LITTLE, FEW, LESS & FEWER

Little or few? Less or fewer?

‘Little’ is used for uncountable nouns. It means ‘not much’.

For example:

There is little money in the budget. There is not enough for new computers.

‘Few’ is used for countable nouns. It means ‘not many’.

For example:

Few people are working today. Many are at home with the flu.

‘A little’ and ‘a few’ can be used to put a positive emphasis on a small amount. However, together with ‘only’ the connotation is negative.

For example:

I have a little money. We can buy something to eat.
I have a few friends. I’ll see if someone can help me.
There’s only a little food left. We might have to buy some more.
Only a few people want to go to the concert.

For comparison, ‘less’ is used for uncountable nouns and ‘fewer’ for countable nouns.

For example:

Politicians say that lowering the speed limit on roads would result in fewer accidents.
Skim milk contains less fat than whole milk.

FEW, LITTLE, LESS, FEWER)
Few = not many Little = not much
Few + countable nouns
Little + uncountable

Few actors came.
Little interest was shown.

A few = some
A little = some A
few + countable nouns
A little + uncountable

A few actors came.
A little interest was shown

‘Less’ is the comparative form of ‘little.’ Little assistance was given this year. Less was given last year.
‘Fewer’ is the comparative form of ‘few.’ Few people received assistance this year. Fewer people received assistance last year.

NO, NOT ANY)
‘No’ can be used instead of ‘not any’ for emphasis.

I don’t have any money. I have no money

We’ve had SOME / A LOT OF / A FEW problems with the implementation of the new system:
Unfortunately, there is LITTLE money in the budget and A LOT OF / SOME / MANY people think it is too expensive.
We are having A LITTLE / SOME difficulty, because FEW staff members understand the need for the change and believe that learning the new system will take A LOT OF / SOME / A LITTLE time.
A FEW / SOME / A LOT OF / MANY managers feel that they have been left out of the decision-making process and there is LITTLE interest in leading the change.

QUESTION TAGS

Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences – particularly in spoken English. There are lots of different question tags but the rules are not difficult to learn.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative ….

He’s a doctor, isn’t he?
You work in a bank, don’t you?

… and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

You haven’t met him, have you?
She isn’t coming, is she?
With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?
They weren’t here, were they?
He had met him before, hadn’t he?
This isn’t working, is it?
Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an appropriate form of ‘do’.

I said that, didn’t I?
You don’t recognise me, do you?
She eats meat, doesn’t she?

With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal verb.

They couldn’t hear me, could they?
You won’t tell anyone, will you?
With ‘I am’

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’

I’m the fastest, aren’t I?
Intonation

Question tags can either be ‘real’ questions where you want to know the answer or simply asking for agreement when we already know the answer.

If the question tag is a real question we use rising intonation. Our tone of voice rises.
If we already know the answer we use falling intonation. Our tone of voice falls.

REPORTED SPEECH

Reported speech is used to tell a person what another person said. When changing from direct to reported speech, the pronouns must be changed to match the subject. Use of the word ‘that’ is optional.

COMMANDS IN REPORTED SPEECH)

Imperatives are expressed in reported speech as follows:
reporting verb + to + infinitive

'Go home immediately!'
He was told to go home immediately.

The verbs ‘tell,’ ‘advise’ and ‘order’ are often used to report commands in reported speech.

REPORTED SPEECH IN THE PRESENT)
When reported speech refers to the present, and when the reporting verb (say) is also in the present, then the tenses in the reported speech remain the same.

'I don’t understand the book.'
He says (that) he doesn’t understand the book.

Jane says, 'I can help you tomorrow.'
Jane says (that) she can help me/us tomorrow.

George says, 'I work in Honolulu.'
George says (that) he works in Honolulu.

'I have to buy supplies today!'
She/he says (that) she/he has to buy supplies today.

'I don’t understand John’s report.'
He/she says (that) he/she doesn’t understand John’s report.

REPORTED SPEECH TENSE SHIFTS

Simple present --> ‘I do my homework.’ --> Paul said he did his homework.

Present continuous --> ‘I’m doing my homework.’ --> Paul said he was doing his homework.

Present perfect --> ‘I have done my homework.’ --> Paul said he had done his homework.

‘Will’ future --> ‘I’ll do my homework.’ --> Paul said he would do his homework.

present -> past

‘I am happy.’ He said he was happy.

simple past ->past perfect

‘I went to the cinema.’ He said he had gone to the cinema.

present perfect-> past perfect

‘I have been to Paris.’ He said he had been to Paris.

past perfect ->past perfect

‘I hadn’t seen that.’ He said he hadn’t seen that.

will -> would

‘I will go there later.’ He said he would go there later.

That

In reported speech, ‘that’ can be omitted after the following words: ‘say,’ ‘explain,’ ‘announce,’ ‘suggest,’ 'demand.'
However, ‘that’ cannot be omitted after these verbs: ‘reply,’ ‘shout,’ ‘mention,’ ‘promise.’

QUESTIONS IN REPORTED SPEECH

In reported speech, the structure of ‘wh-’ questions follows this order: ‘wh-’ question + subject + verb.

'Where are the books?
She wants to know where the books are.

When ‘do’ or ‘does’ follows the ‘wh-’ question in direct speech, it is dropped in reported speech.

'Where does this book belong?'
He asked where this book belongs.

When ‘do’ or ‘does’ begins the question, it is changed to ‘if’ in reported speech.

'Does Sarah live here?'
She asked if Sarah lived here.

The reported tense shift applies to reported questions.

"What time is the play?'
She asked what time the play was.

MODALS IN REPORTED SPEECH)
Some modal verbs also change tense in reported speech when the reporting verb is in the past tense.

'I can’t stay awake any longer.'
She said she couldn’t stay awake any longer.

COMMANDS IN REPORTED SPEECH)
Imperatives are expressed in reported speech as follows:
reporting verb + to + infinitive

'Go home immediately!'
He was told to go home immediately.

The verbs ‘tell,’ ‘advise’ and ‘order’ are often used to report commands in reported speech

Have you been to a job interview? What questions did they ask you? Did they ask when you could start?

Did they ask you …
if you had experience?
if you had been to college?
where you were living?
about your current job?

DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

Direct speech: John says, 'I can help you tomorrow.'
Reported speech: John says (that) he can help me/us tomorrow.

Direct speech: John and Jane say, 'We can help you tomorrow.'
Reported speech John and Jane say (that) they can help me/us tomorrow.

REPORTED SPEECH)

In order to indicate clearly who has said what to whom, pronouns, tenses and / or indications of time must be changed in reported speech. The conjunction ‘that’ may be left out.

Direct speech: He says, 'I live in Honolulu.'
Reported speech: He said (that) he lived in Honolulu.

REPORTED SPEECH IN THE PRESENT)

When reported speech refers to the present, and when the reporting verb (say) is also in the present, then the tenses in the reported speech remain the same.

'I don’t understand the book.'
He says (that) he doesn’t understand the book.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND CLAUSES

A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause.

The musician who wrote the hit single is rich.

Here are some more relative pronouns:
which, that, whom, where, when, whose

‘Where’ and ‘when’ can be used for both defining and non-defining clauses.

‘Where’ refers to places.

That is the house where Elvis lived

‘When’ refers to time.

I was young when I first listened to rock.

WHO, WHOM, WHOSE)

The relative pronoun ‘who’ refers to people and acts as the subject of the relative clause.

He’s the man who lives next door.

The relative pronoun ‘whom’ refers to people and acts as the object of the relative clause.

He’s the man whom I met yesterday.

‘Whom’ is particularly formal and is very often replaced by ‘who.’

She is the woman who(m) I wanted to see.

The relative pronoun ‘whose’ indicates possession and refers to both people and things.

That is the man whose guitar I bought.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)

The defining relative clause provides essential information about the subject. Without this information, the sentence wouldn’t make sense. No comma is used to separate the defining relative clause from the main clause.
The relative pronouns ‘who’ and ‘that’ refer to people.

He’s the singer who/that performed last night

‘That’ and ‘which’ refer to things.

That’s the suit which/that cost $5,000

SAY, TELL, or SPEAK,

Summary of distinctions

SAY:

Say usually takes a direct object. The direct object may be
(1) the actual words uttered (direct speech): “Hello” or “Give me back my cookie!!”
(2) a word such as something, nothing, anything, much, a lot:

Shh! He’s saying something. I want to hear him!
The weather forecast doesn’t say anything about rain this afternoon
Did the doctor say much about your weight gain?

(3) a that-clause (noun clause):

Felicity has never really said that she truly loves me
John said that he had received some good news.

(4) a wh-noun clause (especially in negative and questions):

Did the postman say where we should pick up the parcel?
Mrs. Johnson didn’t say when she would return.

Say can also occur with a to- infinitive phrase that is similar to an imperative:

My father always said to put your best foot forward
My doctor ‘s answering service says to call back in an hour.

Say can be followed by the adverb so:

Why should you stop seeing him? Because I said so!

Say is never followed directly by an indirect object pronoun. This is perhaps the most common difficulty students have with say. If there is an indirect object, it must be a “to” indirect object

CORRECT: You said something to me about going skiing this weekend, remember?
NOT CORRECT: You said me something about going skiing this weekend, remember?
CORRECT: He said “Good morning” to me.
NOT CORRECT: He said me “Good morning.”

If the speaker wants to use say with an indirect object, which is rare, the preposition to must be used. This use of “say to somebody” occurs only with long clauses beginning with that:

CORRECT: He said to me that he was sorry, and that he regretted his rashness.
NOT CORRECT: He said me that he was sorry.
CORRECT: I said to my boss that I needed an assistant, and the sooner the better.
NOT CORRECT: I said my boss that I needed an assistant, and the sooner the better.

Much more common than say, however, in this kind of utterance—when you want to mention the person or persons you are addressing the words to—is the verb tell.

TELL:

Tell almost always occurs with an indirect object:

Please tell me the story of your life.
Nobody told Jim about the meeting – that’s why he wasn’t there.

Tell does, however, occur without an indirect object and with a limited number of direct objects in expressions such as tell a lie, tell a story, tell the truth, tell secrets:

She never tells the same story twice
I’ve never been any good at telling lies.

Tell may occur without an overt (visible) indirect object in a certain kind of context—if the context indicates that there is an audience—but only with wh-noun clauses or phrases:

The speaker told why these facts hadn’t come to light before.
I was spellbound as she told how she first decided to become a snake charmer.

Tell must have an overt indirect object in all other contexts, that is, a word that refers to a person and which comes directly after it:

I want to tell YOU how much I appreciate your kindness.
Please don’t tell JOHNNY about this.

If the direct object is a that-noun clause, it must also have an indirect object:

They told ME that I’d better arrive early
Will you please tell THOSE KIDS that they’re keeping me awake!

Tell may also occur with an animate direct object (“Jean” and “everyone” below) and a to-infinitive complement (“to bring” and “to come” below); this construction has an imperative meaning:

Tell Jean to bring the car to the side entrance.
Tell everyone to come to dinner right away.

SPEAK

Speak can take a direct object, but it does so rarely. Again, it may be followed by a limited number of nouns, including expressions such as speak the truth and speak kind words, as well as speak (names of languages).

Speak is used with the names and numbers of languages:

He’s French-Canadian, but he speaks English with a Portuguese accent.
I speak seven languages, but only two fluently.

Speak is used with direct objects in certain idioms, such as speak a word and speak one’s mind:

He didn’t speak a word all evening.
She doesn’t hesitate to speak her mind.

Speak usually does not take a direct object, however, with expressions other than those above. It does, though, take a to- indirect object:

My advisor spoke TO ME at length about graduate school programs.
You ought to speak TO HIM about applying for a scholarship.

Speak with a plural subject is used in formal style to mean “converse”:

The ambassador and I spoke of the need to improve the farmers’ living conditions
They spoke of love, but never about marriage.

TALK

Talk is very general in meaning. It means “to use spoken language to express oneself.” Most often, it does not have a direct object. It can be used to describe a one-way communication or a two-way conversation.

My aunt talked nonstop for an hour. I couldn’t get a word in edgewise
Our guests talked so long among themselves that they didn’t notice that we were falling asleep
The baby doesn’t talk yet—he’s only eight months old.

Talk does occur in certain expressions with a direct object, but these are idiomatic:

My brother loves to talk shop/ talk politics/ talk sports
It’s time to talk turkey!

Talk can take a to-indirect object, but not a direct object (except in special idioms):

Where’s your father? I need to talk to him immediately.
I can’t give you a discount on this. You’ll have to talk to the manager.

‘SINCE’ AND ‘FOR’

‘For’ describes a period of time (an afternoon, two weeks etc.).

John has been exercising for four months.

‘Since’ indicates the ‘start’ of the action.

John has been exercising since January.

SINCE

The simple past is used after ‘since’ for an event that is over.

Julia hasn’t taken a shower since I saw her last Tuesday.

The present perfect continuous is used after ‘since’ when the action continues into the present.

Julia’s been enjoying herself since she’s been visiting these sites.

SINCE or FROM, FOR or just SINCE

SINCE OR FROM?

We use since and from to express duration. Both tell us the starting point of an activity.
Since expresses duration of an unfinished action, up to a point in the present.

I’ve been here since 8 o’clock this morning so I’m going home now.
I’ve been here from 8 o’clock this morning.

We use from in other cases:

I will be here from 8 o’clock tomorrow.
I will be here since 8 o’clock tomorrow.

The shop is open from 9 a.m on Saturdays.
The shop is open since 9 a.m on Saturdays.

We say from . . . to or from . . . till / until.

He works from 8 to 5.
From the 1920s until his death, Picasso lived in France

SINCE OR FOR?

Since and for both express duration up to a point in the present, but we use them differently.
We use since + the starting point of the activity.

We have lived in this house since we got married.
I’ve been waiting here since 9 o’clock.
We use for + a time period:
We have lived in this house for thirty years.
I’ve been waiting here for three hours.

SINCE
Since expresses duration up to the present.

When we use since, we are saying that something began in the past, but is unfinished.

I have lived in this house since 1997.
(= ‘I moved here in 1997 and I still live here.’)
We’ve been married since last June.
(= ‘We got married last June and we’re still married.’)
I’ve known him since we were at school.
(= ‘I knew him at school and I still know him.’)
We use the present perfect simple or present perfect continuous with since.

I have had this car since last April.
Mary has been working here since 2003.

We can use the past perfect tense with since to express duration from a point in the past.

It was 1974 and he had been living in London since 1964.

SOME and ANY

The words some and any are used for countable and uncountable nouns. In general, we could say that some means a few / a little and any means none in negative clauses or a few / a little in questions.

Positive Clauses
In positive clauses, we usually use some.

Example:

I have bought some bread.
I have bought some apples.

Negative Clauses
In negative clauses, we use any. Note, however, that any alone is not a negative - it must be not … any

Example:

I have not bought any bread.
I have not bought any apples.

Questions
In questions, we usually use any.

Example:

Have you bought any bread?
Have you bought any apples?

Compound Words with some & any
Some & any can also be part of compound words such as:

something / anything
someone / anyone
somewhere / anywhere

Note that some & any have to be used with a noun while compound words with some & any can stand on their own.

Example:

I have bought some bread.
I have bought something.

However, some and any need not stand directly before the noun. Sometimes, the noun appears somewhere before some or any and is not repeated. So if you are not sure whether to use some or something for example, check if there is a noun in the sentence that you can place after some.

Example:

I do not have to buy bread. Rachel has already bought some [bread].
Exceptions

Positive Clauses with Any
We usually use some in positive clauses. But after never, without, hardly, we use any.

Example:

We never go anywhere.
She did her homework without any help.
There’s hardly anyone here.

Also in if clauses, we usually use any.

Example:

If there is anything to do, just call me.

Questions with Some
We usually use any in questions. But if we expect or want the other to answer ‚yes‘, we use some.

Example:

Have you got any brothers and sisters?
Some people have brothers or sisters, others don’t - we cannot expect the answer to be ‚yes‘

Would you like some biscuits?

we offer something and want to encourage the other to say ‘yes’.

*** RULES ***

‘Any’ is used in questions.

Do you have any water?

‘Some’ is used in a positive sentence.

Yes, I have some water.

‘Any’ is used in a negative sentence.

No, I don’t have any water.

‘Some’ is used in questions that offer something to someone.

Would you like ‘some’ water?

‘SO’, EXPRESSIONS WITH

‘So as to’ and ‘in order to’ + infinitive are used to talk about purpose:

We took off our shoes so as to avoid dirtying the new carpet.
He changed jobs in order to have more time with his family.

‘So’ and ‘so that’ + ‘could / would’ also express purpose:

We took off our shoes so that we would avoid dirtying the new carpet.
He changed jobs so he could have more time with his family.

‘Such as’ = for example

You’ll find different cheeses there, such as cheddar, cottage cheese and Brie.
‘As for’ = as far as sb / that is concerned, in regards to sb / that
As for Fred, well, we can forget about him. He won’t come.

PRONOUNS, RELATIVE

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause. It is called a “relative” pronoun because it “relates” to the word that it modifies.

There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that

Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which is for things. In non-defining relative clauses, that is used for things. In defining relative clauses (clauses that are essential to the sentence and do not simply add extra information) that can be used for things and people.

‘Which’ or ‘that’ refer to objects or things.

‘Who’ refers to one or more people.

ADDITIONAL: ‘Where’ and ‘when’ can be used for both defining and non-defining clauses.

‘Where’ refers to places.

‘When’ refers to time.

SUGGESTIONS

SHOULD, OUGHT TO

The verbs ‘should’ and ‘ought to’ are used to give advice.

You should go to the hospital.
You ought to go to the hospital.

SHOULD BE

There should be some money on the table.
= I think there’s some money on the table.
It should be no problem.
= I don’t think it will be a problem.

HAD BETTER
’had better’ + ‘infinitive’ = ‘really should’ + ‘infinitive’

You had better leave now.
= You really should leave now.

TELLING TIME

a.m. = ante meridiem or before midday
a.m. = 00:00-11:59
p.m. = post meridiem or after midday
p.m. = 12:00-23:59

Americans don’t usually use the 24-hour clock (15:00 = 3:00 p.m.)

VOCABULARY (HOW TO SAY DATES)
January 1 January 1st (first)
the 1st (first) of January
April 13 April 13th (thirteenth)
the 13th (thirteenth) of April

VOCABULARY (WRITING THE DATE)

December 24, 2007 US: 12/24/2007 UK: 24/12/07
August 28, 1980 US: 8/28/1980 UK: 28/8/1980

PREPOSITIONS)
on days of the week, dates
at time
in part of a day, month, duration of time
during period of time (e.g. week)

WHEN, AS SOON AS

‘when’ = for two things happening at about the same time

When I arrive in New York, I’ll send you an e-mail.
When I have arrived in New York, I’ll send you an e-mail.

‘as soon as’ = when one thing happens immediately after another

As soon as the song ends, we’ll leave.
As soon as this song has ended, we’ll leave.

In these structures, either the simple present or the present perfect may be used. There is no difference in
meaning.

WILL, WON’T, WOULD

‘Won’t’ expresses refusal:
The thief won’t talk.

‘Wouldn’t’ expresses refusal in the past:
He wouldn’t give his name.

‘Would’ and ‘wouldn’t’ are used in reported speech:
I said we would solve this crime.

‘Would’/‘wouldn’t have’ + ‘past participle’ describes an imagined past situation; that is, a situation that could have happened under certain circumstances.

I would have seen the man, but it was dark.

WILL

Promising (not) to do something

The future tense + will is used to describe instant decisions, including offers for help, making predictions and expressing determination. The will future is constructed with the auxiliary modal verb ‘will’ + the present tense of the main verb.

Example:

I forgot my book. It’s okay, I’ll get it for you.
I think it’ll rain tomorrow.
Make no mistake, we will end this war!

Negative form: ‘will’ + ‘not’ + infinitive

I will not drive fast.

Short form: ‘won’t’ + infinitive

I won’t drive fast.

‘Will’ is also used for predictions.

Will you manage to finish your English course on time? How will you do
this?

More predictions:

Have you seen a weather forecast today? What will the weather be like tomorrow?
Will we manage to solve the problem of climate change? How, or why not?
Who will win the next World Cup?

WILL, WON’T

The ‘will’ and ‘won’t’ future is used…

for predictions:

It won’t rain tomorrow

to express determination:

You will do your homework.

to offer or refuse something:

I’ll help you.
I won’t tell you.

in an ‘if’ clause:

If you switch on the phone, it will work.
If you ask him to come, I won’t stay here.

VERB + INFINITIVE

Verbs followed by ‘to’

agree
decide
expect
hesitate
intend
manage
plan
arrange
deserve
fail
hope
learn
offer
promise

'USED TO’ AND ‘DIDN’T USE TO

‘Used to’ + ‘infinitive’ describes habitual actions or states in the past.

I used to smoke.
(In the past I smoked, but I don’t smoke now.)

The structure ‘didn’t use to’ + infinitive describes an action that didn’t happen in the past, but that happens now.

Jason didn’t use to smoke.
(Jason didn’t smoke in the past, but he smokes now.)

ALL and EVERYTHING, EVERYONE

‘All’ is not typically used alone.
(all_ofus
all_ofthe~managers
all_ofthem
all_Ican
all~about
all_Iknow)

‘All I know / All I have / All I see’ = ‘The only thing I know / I have / I see’

‘Everything’ can be used on its own. ‘I saw everything.’ (not ‘all’) ‘I know everything.’ (not ‘all’)

‘every’, ‘everything,’ and ‘everyone’ are singular and so take singular verbs.

‘Everything has … everyone is … every chair is …’

Examples:

Everyone has their faults. (The verb is singular so ‘everyone’ must be used here. Also, point out that it’s okay to use ‘their’ with ‘everyone’.)

Money isn’t everything. (This is an example of a case where we don’t use ‘all’ because we typically don’t use ‘all’ on its own.)

How much money have you got with you, John? Hm, let me see. Hm, all I have is $10. (‘All’ is used to mean 'the only thing(s).)

Everyone in our team reached their goals. (Point out that there would have to be an ‘of us’ in the sentence for ‘all’ to be possible.)

All of us reached our goals.

The key words here are ‘of us’ and indicate the use of ‘all.’

VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUND AND INFINITIVE

She began singing.
She began to sing.

When “begin” is used in non-continuous tenses, you can either use a gerund or an infinitive.

She is beginning to sing.

When “begin” is used in continuous tenses, an infinitive is used.

DREAD

She dreaded taking the test.

Usually “dread” is followed by a gerund.

He dreaded to think of the consequences of his actions.

“Dread” is sometimes used with infinitives such as “think” or “consider.” In the sentence above, “dreaded to think” means “did not want to think.”

FORGET

She forgot reading the book when she was a kid.

When “forget” is used with a gerund, it means “to forget that you have done something.” The sentence above means that she read the book when she was a kid, and that she has forgotten that fact.

She forgot to pay the rent this month.

When forget is used with an infinitive, it means “to forget that you need to do something.” The sentence above means that she forgot that she needed to pay the rent.

KEEP

She kept talking.

“Keep” is normally used with a gerund to mean that you continue doing an action.

The attackers kept hostages to prevent the police from entering.

“Keep” can also be used with an object followed by an infinitive, but then the infinitive takes on the meaning of “in order to… .” In the sentence above, the attackers kept hostages in order to prevent the police from entering.

NEED

The house needs cleaning.

When “need” is used with a gerund, it takes on a passive meaning. The sentence above means “the house needs to be cleaned.”

He needs to call his boss.
He needs him to call his boss.

“Need” is usually used with an infinitive or an object + an infinitive.

REGRET

I regretted being late to the interview.

“Regret” is normally used with a gerund.

We regret to inform you that your position at the company is being eliminated.

“Regret” is sometimes used with infinitives such as “to inform.” In the sentence above, “We regret to inform you” means “We wish we did not have to tell you (bad news).”

REMEMBER

I remember mentioning the meeting yesterday.

When “remember” is used with a gerund, it means “to remember that you have done something.” The sentence above means that I mentioned the meeting, and that I remember the fact that I did that.

He remembered to turn off the lights before he left.

When “remember” is used with an infinitive, it means “to remember that you need to do something.” The sentence above means that he remembered that he needed to turn the lights off.

START

Marge started talking really fast.
Marge started to talk really fast.

When “start” is used in non-continuous tenses, you can either use a gerund or an infinitive.

Marge is starting to talk really fast.

When “start” is used in continuous tenses, an infinitive is used.
I started to learn Russian, but it was so much work that I finally quit the class.

In other situations, an infinitive means that you did not complete or continue an action.

STOP

He stopped smoking for health reasons.

“Stop” is normally used with a gerund.

He stopped to rest for a few minutes.

When “stop” is used with an infinitive, the infinitive takes on the meaning of “in order to.” In the sentence above, he stopped in order to rest for a few minutes.

TRY
She can’t find a job. She tried looking in the paper, but there was nothing. She tried asking friends and family, but nobody knew of anything. She also tried going shop to shop, but nobody was hiring.

“Try + gerund” means to try or to experiment with different methods to see if something works.

She tried eating the snake soup, but she didn’t like it.

“Try + gerund” is often used when you experiment with something, but you do not really like it or want to do it again.

She tried to climb the tree, but she couldn’t even get off the ground.

When you “try to do” something, you want to do it, but you do not succeed in actually doing it. In the sentence above, an infinitive is used because she cannot successfully climb the tree.

Try not to wake the baby when you get up tomorrow at 5 AM.

An infinitive is also used if you are asking someone to try something they may or may not be able to accomplish.

<name=“QUESTIONS-DIRECT-INDIRECT”>

QUESTIONS, DIRECT AND INDIRECT

Direct

When does the flight to Chicago depart?
Is the flight to Los Angeles delayed?

Indirect

Can you tell me when the flight to Chicago departs?
Do you know if the flight to Los Angeles is delayed?

VERBS, PHRASAL

Phrasal verbs are verbs where the meaning is sometimes a bit confusing. The only way to learn them is to memorize the whole phrase and the meaning. Choose two of these phrasal verbs and tell me what they REALLY mean.

Examples:

I can’t seem to get around to tidying my desk. What chores can’t you get around to doing?

When you attend meetings how long do they normally go on? How long is too long? What’s the best amount of time for a meeting to go on and still be productive and why?

On what occasions do you feel you have to twist people’s arms to get something done?

What are some tips to stop people from going on and on about something?

What character attributes make you feel you can count on someone?

Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition. These are called phrasal verbs.

There is usually no indicator whether an idiomatic phrase is separable, inseparable, or intransitive. In most cases they must simply be memorized.

Some phrasal verbs are separable:

add up = to add
She added up the total on her calculator. She added it up on her calculator.

Some phrasal verbs are inseparable:

care for = maintain, supervise
She cared for the children.

Phrasal verbs can also be intransitive. This means they cannot take a direct object without a helping preposition, like ‘to,’ ‘on,’ ‘of,’ ‘from,’ or ‘with.’

catch on = understand

After I explained the computer program he began to catch on. He began to catch on to the computer program.

back out = fail to keep a promise; desert
He made a promise to help, but he backed out. He backed out of our agreement.

THE VERB ‘MAKE’ + PREPOSITION)

make of sth / sb

I don’t know what to make of it.
(= I’m not sure what I think about this.)

make off with

He made off with my purse.
(= He ran off with my purse.)

make up for

I will make up for the lost time.
(= I will compensate for the lost time.)

THE VERB ‘DO’ + PREPOSITION)

do without

I can do without the jacket.
(= I can manage without the jacket)

do away with

She did away with a lot of the paperwork.
(= She got rid of a lot of the paperwork.)

WHICH FORM OF ‘0’

“Naught” is used in mathematical expressions and decimals: ‘naught times five equals naught’

0.5 = ‘naught point five’ (or ‘point five’)
0.05 = ‘point naught five’

(American English speakers often just use ‘zero’ rather than ‘naught.’)

“Zero” is used in scientific expressions, especially temperatures:

-15C = minus fifteen degrees or fifteen degrees below zero.

Zero is also used to mean ‘the lowest point’:

‘The stock market crash reduced profits to zero.’

“O” (the letter) is used in telephone numbers:

650-207-8270 = ‘six five oh two oh seven eight two seven oh.’

“Nil” or “nothing” is used to express the score in games:

The baseball game ended with the home team winning 4 - 0 = ‘four nil’ or ‘four nothing.’ (you can also say ‘four zero’)

PASSIVE, ACTIVE, vs

Passive voice is used when actions, decisions or points of view are more important than the person who performs them. The passive is also used to make sentences sound more formal or objective. Passive sentences follow the same tense rules as active ones. No change of tense occurs when a sentence is rewritten into a passive form.

Active: The engineer writes a lot of reports.
Passive: A lot of reports are written (by the engineer).

The passive can be used to make a sentence sound more official or less personal and therefore defuse unpopular facts, ideas or opinions.

VERB + ‘-ING’ FORM)
Look at how the following verbs follow this structure: catch, hear, find, keep, notice and see.
Example:

Mr Smith saw the children stealing apples. (active) The children were seen stealing apples by Mr Smith. (passive)

VERB + ‘TO INFINITIVE’ + OBJECT)
Some passive forms derive from an active form with a compound verb (e.g., come to see, begin to learn). The first verb does not change form in the passive voice.

Example:

Jim came to see the report’s value. (active) The report’s value came to be seen. (passive)

Some compound verbs, such as ‘refuse to believe’ and ‘offer to help’ cannot be used easily in the passive.
Example:

Wanda offered to help the stranger.

PERFECT, PAST

(1) The past perfect is used to show an order of events in the past. It signals that one event happened before another in the past.

Jobs left Apple in 1985; he had fallen out with the company’s CEO, John Sculley.

(2) However, when the order of events is clear, the past perfect does not have to be repeated.

John started a new job last month. Apparently his old boss had treated him badly. He undermined every decision he made, took credit for his work, and generally bullied him. It was awful!

(3) Very often, time clauses or expressions of time make the order of events clear. In this case, the simple past or past perfect can be used without any difference in meaning.

After she left / had left the conference room, people started arguing.
Once they sorted / had sorted out their personal issues, they worked really well together.
The minute he found / had found out what she was up to, he fired her.

(4) The past perfect is generally used in reported speech when the original was in the present perfect.
Present Perfect >>> Past Perfect

"I’ve read the report."
John said that he had read the report.

(5) The past perfect, however, is generally used after these expressions:

It was the first time I had been to Paris.
This was the first time I had ever given a presentation.
That was the first time she had spoken to him.

CONTENTS C1

INTERJECTIONS
INVERSION
EXPRESSIONS WITH HEART
PHRASAL VERBS
TURN-TAKING

TURN TAKING

HESITATION:

“er” “ehm” “well” “you know” “I mean”

cleanly: “Well” + content sentence

ATTRACTING ATTENTION:

“Guess what?” “You’ll never guess what” “Something interesting happened” “Have I got a surprise for you”

TAKING OVER
uptakes:
“ah” “no” “well” “yes”

links:

“and” “but” “cos” “so”

INTERRUPTING
alerts:

“hey” “listen” “look”

metacomments:

“can I just tell” “can I say something about this” “let me just” “excuse me for interrupting”, “can I add here that” “I’d like to comment on that” “can I ask a question” etc.

HOLDING A TURN
fillers:

“er” “ehm” “kind of” “well” “really” “sort of” “just”

repetition of single words: e.g.

“that”

partial clause:

“it was, it was a”

new start:

“but I feel somehow” however the fact that”

YIELDING A TURN
prompting acts:

an apology, an invitation, an offer, a question, a request

appealers: question tags,

“you know?” “you see?”

AVOIDING A TURN

backchannels: “mm” “yeah” “right” “really” “how nice” “that’s interesting” “how awful” “I see” “did you?”

PRE-PLANING

“there are three things I want to say” “just two things” “one last

ADVERBS, Position of

Depending on the type, adverbs can come at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

Connecting adverbs (e.g. however, furthermore, as a result, on the contrary, consequently, etc.) or adverbs of time and place can assume the beginning position in a sentence.

Adverbs of frequency assume the middle position.
Adverbs of manner, time and place can assume the end position. They can also be used in the same sentence. If this is the case then they always follow the pattern: manner + place + time.

PHRASAL VERB, OVERVIEW

move upward
stand up
get up
lift up
hang up
pin up
sit up

increase or improve

move up
go up
build up
pile up
put up
cheer up

complete or end

use up
sum up
close up
drink up
eat up
finish up

approach

walk up
run up
drive up
catch up
sneak up
creep up

appear

turn up
show up
pop up
spring up
crop up
shoot up

DOWN

move downward
sit down
take down
put down
fall down
climb down
trickle down

decrease

slow down
turn down
go down
calm down
push down
cool down

complete, end or stop

close down
shut down
burn down
break down
settle down
stand down

OUT
move outward

move out
get out
go out
eat out
look out
venture out

exclude

shut out
keep out
leave out
push out
sit out
miss out

complete

work out
clean out
figure out
carry out
wear out
dry out

enter
go in
break in
come in
drop in
walk in
drop in

include or involve

throw in
take in
blend in
stir in
blend in
put in

arrive

walk in
clock in
pull in
check in
come in
drive in

INTERJECTIONS

when you realize that what you just said is incorrect

I tell a lie

explaining something, especially a more simple way

in other words

showing that you expressed something in an unusual way

so to speak

emphasizing that there is no explanation for something

no rhyme or reason

when you are going to simplify a complicated idea

to put it in a nutshell

used for stating the most basic reason for something

in the first place

when explaining the basic cause or nature of something
fundamentally

explaining what you have just said

I mean

saying that something is one of the main reasons for a situation

as much as anything

when you disagree with or correct what has been said

as a matter of fact

mentioning a reason for something, when there are several

for one thing:

EXPRESSIONS WITH ‘HEART’

PHRASAL VERBS WITH ‘KEEP’

keep from (prevent from)

Don’t keep him from his work.

keep down (prevent from increasing)

Keep down the noise level.

keep off (stay off)

Keep off the grass.

keep to (limit oneself to)

Keep to the plan.

keep on (continue)

Keep on doing what you’re doing.

keep up (continue)

Keep up the good work.

keep up with (stay equal with)

Keep up with the work load.

There’s a saying that it’s ‘hard to keep a good person down.’ Do you agree with this saying? Why or why not?

Tell me about something that you ‘keep on doing’ even though you would like to stop. Why do you think that you find it so hard to stop doing this thing?

What kinds of changes are taking place in your industry? What do you do ‘to keep up with these happenings?’

PHRASAL VERB, MEANING, EXAMPLES

To break down

To stop functioning

The machinery has broken down. We need to get it repaired.

To call off

To cancel

The union called off the strike when we agreed to their demands.

To carry on

To continue

We can’t carry on with this level of costs.

To fall Through

To collapse

The deal has fallen through

To fill in

To replace temporarily

Could you fill in for John?

To get on with

(1) To progress

How are you getting on with the task?

To get on with (2)

To have a good relationship with

I get on with my boss well.

To get over

To recover from

We need to get over this setback

To give up

To stop trying

We mustn’t give up

To lay off

To make redundant

They laid off 50 workers during the recession

To look after

take responsibility for

Can you look after the new recruits?

To make up for

To compensate

Our increased profits in South America will make up for the losses in Japan.

To move on to

To move to the next step in a conversation or situation.

Ok, I think we’ve decided that now. Let’s move on to the next agenda item.

To put off (1)

To postpone

They didn’t have enough information, so they have put off the decision until the next meeting.

To put off (2)

To be a disincentive

The price put me off.

To roll out

To implement fully

We’ll roll out the changes to all the countries after we’ve completed the pilot.

To run out of

To reduce a resource to zero.

Our next meeting is starting. We’ve run out of time.

To sort out

To solve

We need to sort out this problem as soon as we can

To step in

To enter a conversation or situation

Could I step in here? I don’t really agree with what you are saying.

To sum up

To summarise

Before finishing, let’s sum up what we’ve decided.

To Take Over (1)

to buy a company

They took over the company two years ago.

To Take Over (2)

To take responsibility or control

I took over the department when Mr Smith retired.

To try out

To test

We should try it out the new software before buying it.

To turn down

To reject

We turned down his application for part time work because it didn’t fit our business model.

To turn over

To generate revenue

The company turned over 4 Million Euro last year.

To wrap up

To conclude/ finish

I think we’ve discussed everything. Shall we wrap up?

INVERSION

Inversion is used in formal speech as an alternative form of a conditional sentence:

If I had known the answer, I would have gotten a good grade.
Had I known the answer, I would have gotten a good grade.

Inversion is also used after certain adverbial expressions:

I pressed the button and out came a strange brown liquid. I think it was coffee!
The little boy was playing with the buttons and suddenly off went the burglar alarm!
Not only did the alarm go off, but two police officers arrived within seconds.

Inversion is also used when a clause begins with a negative adverb, such as ‘never, rarely, seldom, etc.’ In compound tenses, the subject and first auxiliary are inverted. In simple tenses, ‘do’ is used.

Examples

Not only do we like the director’s work, but we respect his work ethic.
Under no circumstances must John hear about this.
Never before has it been possible to talk to the director.
Rarely are foreign films popular in America.
On no account should an inexperienced actor question his director.